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A cryptographic hash function maps an input of arbitrary length to an output of fixed length, and it is effectively one-way. Changing a single character in the input produces an entirely different output, an effect known as the avalanche property. This behaviour underpins file integrity checks, password storage, and the chaining of blocks inside a blockchain.

Cloud computing abstracts computing resources into services that can be rented on demand. Rather than purchasing servers in advance, a business can scale capacity with traffic, which substantially lowers the fixed costs and technical barriers faced by early-stage companies.

A content delivery network places cached copies of static assets on servers in many geographic locations, bringing them closer to visitors. For sites with heavy images, video, or stylesheets, a CDN can noticeably reduce the time it takes for the first screen to render.

Technical debt describes the shortcuts and compromises made to ship quickly, which then raise maintenance costs in later iterations. Regular refactoring and a healthy layer of automated tests are the usual ways to keep that debt from compounding.